Historically, in the paternal clan system, there has remained one immutable condition: relations are determined by the male blood lines. However, practically speaking, society has also maintained a system of fictitious blood relations. This kind of relationship, often in conflict with the system of paternal clans, has never been completely shed. Because this phenomenon is so intricately related to the conception of family, of society and politics, of the collective and individual, of customs and ethics, it is, therefore, a topic worthy of discussion.
This paper is divided into three parts: 1) the various forms of fictitious blood relation, 2) the relation between fictitious and paternal blood ties, 3) the coexistence of these two institution.
I have divided fictitious blood relations into eight distinct categories: 1) the imperial bestowal of surname, 2) the joining of peoples of different ancestry with the same surname, 3) the fostering of a son bearing a different name, 4) the establishment of nominal parental relations, 5) the establishment of nominal fraternal/ sororate relations, 6) the bestowal of inheritance and/or succession rights upon the son-in-law, or nephew, 7) the establishment of patriarchal relations between landlords and tenants, or between masters and servants, 8) the acquiring of surname through the institution of slavery.
Fictitious blood relations were contradictory to the paternal clan system. Yet, paradoxically, they relied upon this system as a guarantee of their existence. Exponents of the paternal clan system attacked fictitious blood ties as a confusion of name, clan, and ancestral ties. Simultaneously, they were compelled to accept various aspects of this institution, including nominal fraternal/sororate relations, nominal kinship, and imperial bestowal of surname. These two systems of relationships were mutually exclusive, yet relied upon one another for their continuance.
The system of fictitious blood relationships was a means of adjustment within the larger context of the paternal clan system, well-suited to the establishment and development of families in ancient China. It served its function by facilitating social relations and social intercourse, particularly in the instance of emigrant life. Politically, it was an excellent means of consolidating power both in government and among individual families.
Clan, Fictitious blood relations, United clans with different lineage, Natural parents' contribution, Foster parents' contribution
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