Abstract
During the Ming-Qing era, due to the number of literati, wealthy people and courtesans in the Jiangnan area, as well as the high frequency of festive celebrations, social interactions and leisure activities, there was a huge demand for flowers. In many large cities such as Nanjing, Yangzhou, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Shanghai, several specialized gardening plantations appeared on the peripheries of the cities. Since the planting of flowers brought higher economic returns than the planting of rice crops, many agricultural farms were converted into flower farms, and a wide variety of flowers were planted. It is worth noting that at the end of the 18th century, the flower gardeners and flower merchants of Suzhou established the Trade Association of Flower Merchants, and a similar organization subsequently also appeared in Shanghai at the end of the 19th century. This shows that the organizational and commercial ties between the members of the flower industry were becoming increasingly strong.
In order to attract the patronage of wealthy customers and increase profit, gardeners continually innovated their planting technologies to improve their breeds. At the end of the 18th century, greenhouse cultivation appeared in Yangzhou and Suzhou, and subsequently also appeared in Shanghai at the end of the 19th century. As a result of this new technology, many flowers and plants which originally could only bloom in the springtime were now on the market before the arrival of the Chinese New Year’s Day, and became highly coveted products which everyone rushed to purchase. Apart from greenhouse cultivation, the method of grafting was also used to plant flowers that were not originally found in Jiangnan. Due to stiff competition between various cities, there was a noticeable shift in each of the cultivation centers. For example, during the Ming Dynasty, the cultivation center for peonies shifted from Suzhou to Jiangyin, and then shifted to Shanghai during the Qing Dynasty. Jiading was originally famous for the cultivation of narcissus, but by the beginning period of the Qing era, this center had already been surpassed by Nanjing. Faced with fierce competition, the gardeners would protect their breeding and planting technologies and prevent third parties from obtaining such secrets. One such example is the Jiading bonsai. Since the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the bonsai in Nanjing and Suzhou each has its own thriving local market. By the beginning of the 17th century, the bonsai in Jiading had made an impressive entry into the market due to its unique features, and soon became the most popular product in Jiangnan. Although bonsai cultivation was prevalent in Suzhou, Yangzhou and Hangzhou up until the Qing Dynasty, the Jiading bonsai continued to be relatively popular, primarily due to the fact that its shape resembled the trees of a traditional Chinese painting.
In terms of economic trading, Jiangnan was the biggest flower consumption market during the Ming-Qing era. Its trade network had Suzhou as the center, and extended into the northwest to Nanjing, into the north to Yangzhou, and into the southwest to Hangzhou, thereby forming a market hub that covered 250 kilometers. Since flower trading and selling were primarily carried out using the waterways, vessels played a very important role. During the Qing Dynasty, flower farmers and merchants even made use of passenger ships that operated at night to transport the flowers and plants into the cities to be sold the next day. The network of flower trading in Jiangnan during the Ming-Qing era formed a spider-like web, and the density of this network was unprecedented in history. Apart from the mutual trading between various cities in Jiangnan, many flowers from Jiangxi and Fujian (such as the jasmine and orchid) were also transported to the big cities in Jiangnan through the waterways or on land. In the Qing Dynasty, the custom controls for the export of goods from the coastal regions along the southeastern sea were gradually relaxed, and jasmine and orchids from Fujian and Guangzhou were transported to Jiangnan by the sea. With the expansion of the trading hub, the volume of goods that were supplied and the rate of goods that were received increased significantly. Moreover, following the increase of trade with overseas countries, flowers from overseas also entered into the domestic market, becoming the new novelties on the market. The sale of flowers and plants spurred the emergence of a series of auxiliary products and services, each of which had its own niche market, thus existing harmoniously alongside each other. Middlemen who shuttled between buyers and sellers would receive a commission upon a successful transaction. Some flower merchants would go directly to the gardens to place their orders, but most of the flowers and plants were harvested and then carried to the cities by the gardeners themselves, or were peddled along the streets. In addition, customers could even rent flowers and plants in Nanjing during the Ming era, and in Yangzhou and Hangzhou during the Qing era. During the Qing Dynasty, gardeners in Yangzhou would help the customers to arrange the flowers and plants in their gardens, and even provide warranty services.
Keywords
The Trade Association of Flower Merchants, greenhouse cultivation, bonsai style, technology secrets, trade network
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