Among all incidents that took place during the visit of George Macartney (1737-1806) and his retinue to China in 1793, the diplomatic encounter involving the guest ritual between China and Britain is particularly controversial. Which form of ceremony Macartney actually performed in front of Qianlong’s throne has long been an unsolved mystery and topic of debate in academic circles.
Using numerous documents from the Qing imperial archives, British manuscripts, as well as printed materials from various libraries throughout Europe and North America, the author attempts to provide an objective and comprehensive historical account of these guest rituals and how they were narrated throughout history.
By analyzing the way in which texts and illustrations were produced, and conducting direct and cross examinations, the author attempts to grasp the subjective point of view of each author. New findings reveal that the Chinese and the British reached a compromise, and later reports of these guest rituals documented by Chinese and British officials were created in such a way as to provide ample room for interpretation advantageous to each side, while neglecting those aspects considered less respectful.
The agreement was that Macartney would perform a slightly modified Chinese ceremony during the reception of the British Ambassador, which consisted of kneeling three times on both knees and bowing profoundly thrice each time without performing the kowtow. Immediately thereafter he would perform the British ceremony when delivering the credential, which involved kneeling on one knee and delivering the document into the Emperor’s own hands while omitting the kissing of the Emperor’s hand.
Macartney later denied having knelt down on both knees and this controversy directly or indirectly influenced the diplomatic encounters between Qing China and Britain when Macartney’s successors William Pitt Amherst (1773-1857) and William John Napier (1786-1834) visited China in 1816 and 1833, respectively. Analyzing these events, the author tries not only to investigate the impact of these confrontations on the Opium War and the diplomatic history of the late-Qing, but also to differentiate between impression and reality in history.
Sino-Britain relations, guest ritual controversy, George Macartney, William Pitt Amherst, George Leonard Staunton
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