Abstract
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in China has traditionally been seen as one of chaos in history, but some modern scholars have argued that the ambiguous and decentralized political structure had a constructive influence on Chinese history; that is, the tributary system built on the notion of tianxia 天下 (lit. “[all] under heaven”) became largely ineffective, leading to four centuries characterized by diplomatic equality. However, recent research has also highlighted the adaptability of tianxia to various political environments. Even during the Five Dynasties period, evidence shows the functionality of tianxia, proving it was not merely an ideal of those instituting it within political workings but also served practical purposes for the participants operating under it. The present article selects the Wuyue Kingdom (893–978) as a case study to investigate the different findings of previous scholars, and to this end, systematically explores three aspects: (1) the benefits and limitations of the Wuyue Kingdom’s interactions with the successive Central Plain dynasties, who proclaimed themselves as the “Central Kingdom” and initiated the tianxia system in which the Wuyue participated; (2) the impact of the tianxia system on the relationships of the Wuyue Kingdom with other regimes beyond the Central Plain dynasties; and (3) the correlation between the late Wuyue Kingdom’s construction of its Buddhist state image and the tianxia system. The findings of this article reveal a perpetual tension between the autonomy of the Wuyue Kingdom and the influence of the system. In general, the Wuyue Kingdom adhered to the norms of the tianxia system when engaging with the Central Plain dynasties, but when dealing with other states or their own subjects, they often deviated from its expectations in pursuit of their own interests, ultimately resulting in complex and multi-layered practices. Finally, this article also seeks to contribute to the relatively unexplored study of tianxia during the Tang-Song transition, an area that has not yet received adequate scholarly attention.
Keywords
tianxia (all under heaven); Central Kingdom; Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms; Wuyue Kingdom; Buddhist state
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