Abstract
Traditional Chinese society constructed a “spiritual” or “supernatural” world made up of “Heavenly Gods,” “Spirits of the Earth,” and “Human Ghosts.” In addition to these beings were also the so-called mei 魅, which are somewhat similar to the fairies or monsters in Western civilization. This philological study of terms associated with mei reveals that the notion of mei can be traced to pre-Qin 秦 China (pre-221 BC). Three basic terms referring to these beings emerged during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), namely chimei 魑魅 (monster), guimei 鬼魅 (ghostly monster) and jingmei 精魅 (fairy), and it was during the Han Dynasty that the meanings of these terms reached maturity and became more firmly established.
Basically, mei refers to a type of non-human monstrous creature; Regarded as “goblins” or “demons” that brought about accidents, confusion, illness, disasters, and disruption, these “beings” were seen as rare, mysterious, and strange. Yet the three concepts of chimei, guimei, and jingmei clearly differ.
Among these distinctions, two stand out as the most significant: first, the places in which the mei appeared, and second, the physical form that the mei adopted. Chimei were originally thought to have existed in “foreign lands” or “remote places,” and it was only later that they entered the mountains and rivers of “China” proper. Guimei seemed to linger in wild and remote places. Jingmei, however, were scattered about everywhere and could be found in forests, fields, cities, villages, and houses.
These three types of mei also took on different physical forms. Chimei were “creatures” with particular forms, mostly those of animals or creatures that were half-human and half-beast. Guimei were “invisible” beings or beings capable of remaining “invisible” without adopting a particular physical shape. Jingmei could assume all kinds of forms. Every “being” (including humans) could be transformed into jingmei. In early China it was believed that non-human beings could take on human form, but later it was thought that every “being” could assume any other form and could be visible or invisible. This difference is not merely semantic but relates to the evolution of the very concept of mei. In China after the second century, the term mei gradually came to be used primarily to mean jingmei.
Only after the second century do traditional Chinese documents present more concrete descriptions of the circumstances under which jingmei revealed their original form or changed their form, of how they attacked or endangered humans, and of the types of “beings” that could become jingmei. This article intends to explore how people in early medieval China constructed this new image of mei based principally on the tales of jingmei.
Through an analysis of 41 jingmei tales, we discovered that in the Six Dynasties (3rd-6th centuries), people believed that anyone could encounter jingmei anywhere and at any time, regardless of gender, age, social class, and occupation. Gingmei’s original physical forms included wild beasts (foxes, wild cats and deer etc.), snakes, insects (grasshoppers, scorpions), aquatic creatures (water lizards, turtles, otters, carp etc.), plants (large trees), domestic animals (pigs, chicken and dogs etc.) and commonly used objects (pillows and wooden shoes). Any living or lifeless “being” could be transformed into jingmei under certain circumstances because of their age-old existence or natural talents. Even the dead could transform themselves into jingmei. The majority of jingmei, however, took the form of wild animals.
Most jingmei could transform into humans, and even assume the identity of a relative or partner. Some remained invisible, or could only speak a human language and eat like humans; others had human form but lacked certain body parts.
Some people who encountered jingmei were left entirely unharmed. Others were only frightened, confused or harassed. Some victims, however, had their hair chopped off, and others were lured into having sex with jingmei. In some cases men died because of “the loss of sperm.” Most women fell ill with what was generally called a “demonic illness” or a “fairy illness.” However, some men had “one-night stands” with jingmei, or slept with them for several months or years, and jingmei even became pregnant and had babies. According to the stories, they seemed to have been left unharmed. It is worth noting that in the Six Dynasties, people believed that humans could have loving or sexual relationships with jingmei, gods, or ghosts who were members of the opposite sex or of a different species.
At the same time, however, jingmei also induced much fear, since people believed that jingmei could appear anywhere and at any time to harm humans. Luckily, ordinary people could use some commonly found objects─such as mirrors, fire, dogs, knives and swords─to force the spirits reveal their original forms, and exorcise and kill them. In addition, people could also seek the help of spiritual sources such as occult art practitioners, Taoist priests, or Buddhist monks. These spiritual experts could then employ more complicated occult arts─such as divination and incantations─to determine the original forms of the jingmei and kill them. If people were harmed by jingmei and became sick, they could go to see doctors for therapy.
An examination of the conception of jingmei in early medieval China reveals broader cultural and historical significance. People in early medieval China seemed to have a greater fear of the “extra-human” world when compared with their predecessors. They lacked confidence in their sensory experience and the world they encountered. They feared all strange and remote places, different beings, and different species. They also lived in doubt of their acquaintances and the objects around them: They believed that any living creature or lifeless being could transform into jingmei in human form. Unpredictability in everyday life increased since the threat of encountering jingmei could no longer be clearly delineated: Jingmei no longer only lurked in wild forests and strange waters, and moments of danger were no longer limited to darkness, dusk, and dawn. This change may perhaps be termed the “humanization” or “normalization” of the concept of jingmei.
Facing the world of jingmei, people in the Six Dynasties nevertheless constructed mechanisms to defend against and resist the interference of jingmei. They believed that the power which humans wielded was greater than that of the jingmei, and that by implementing commonly used objects and methods, jingmei could be driven away, exorcised, or eliminated. Moreover, jingmei could also be eliminated by religious means. Consequently, some jingmei which had never harmed people were killed by humans. Literary sources from early medieval China indicate that people believed that the unpredictability of encountering jingmei had rendered the world more ominous than in the past. However, equipped with more advanced weapons, they remained optimistic that they could meet these new challenges and keep jingmei at bay.
Keywords
spirits, jingmei (fairies), mei, monster, tales
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